Los efectos del Acuerdo de Asociación Mercosur-Unión Europea en las mujeres emprendedoras del sector de servicios en Brasil.
Resumen
La neutralidad de género en las relaciones comerciales internacionales ha sido cada vez más cuestionada en los últimos años. Para contribuir a una mejor comprensión de este fenómeno, esta investigación tuvo como principal objetivo analizar los posibles efectos del Acuerdo de Asociación entre Mercosur y la Unión Europea en las mujeres emprendedoras brasileñas del sector de servicios. La metodología utilizada se basó en la Gender Trade Toolbox de la UNCTAD y se apoyó en un análisis cualitativo de contenido de la literatura reciente sobre los efectos del comercio internacional en las trabajadoras y emprendedoras. Los efectos se dividieron en positivos (más oportunidades de negocio y empleo, mejor calidad de vida y condiciones laborales, y mayor libertad de elección) y negativos. Los resultados mostraron que las mujeres emprendedoras podrían verse más beneficiadas por el comercio, ya que podrían integrarse en cadenas globales de valor (CGV), proveer servicios a empresas orientadas a la exportación y al sector manufacturero, y acceder al mercado internacional. No obstante, la importación de productos y servicios más baratos podría aumentar la competencia en sus empresas y sacarlas del mercado, principalmente porque están mayormente concentradas en pequeños negocios con menor capacidad tecnológica. Además, las emprendedoras enfrentan barreras debido a los roles de género, como la responsabilidad del trabajo no remunerado y la discriminación de género. Para que las emprendedoras brasileñas maximicen sus beneficios de la liberalización del comercio, mejoren su bienestar y aprovechen las oportunidades de negocio, las políticas públicas deben estar diseñadas para brindarles acceso al crédito, así como capacitación y educación para afrontar los cambios tecnológicos. Además, deben implementarse medidas redistributivas y de provisión social para promover una mayor igualdad de género.Palabras clave:
comercio internacional, género, mujeres emprendedoras, desarrollo, BrasilReferencias
Araújo, B. C., Bogliacino, F., & Vivarelli, M. (2011). Technology, trade and skills in Brazil: Evidence from micro data. CEPAL Review, 105, 157–171. https://doi.org/10.18356/0266379b-en.
Arbache, Jorge Saba. (2001). Trade liberalization and labor market in developing countries: Theory and evidence (Discussion Paper, No. 01,12), University of Kent, Department of Economics.
Asian Development Bank. (2019). Leveraging Trade for Women’s Economic Empowerment in the Pacific. Asian Development Bank Institute Casemate Academic.
B. Elam, A., College, B., & Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). (2021). Women’s entrepreneurship 2020/21: Thriving through crisis. Global Entrepreneurship Research Association, London Business School.
Bandele, O. (2016). An equal seat at the table: gendering trade negotiations (International Trade Working Paper 2016/14), Commonwealth Secretariat, London.
Bayly, A. C. (2002). "Archaic’ and “Modern” Globalization in the Eurasian and African Arena c. 1750·1850. In A. G. Hopkins (Ed.), Globalization in World History (pp. 47–73). Oxford University Press.
Bengtsson, M. (2016). How to plan and perform a qualitative study using content analysis. NursingPlus Open, 2, 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.npls.2016.01.001
Berik, G. (2012). Gender Aspects of Trade. In M. Jansen, R. Peters, Salazar-Xirinachs, & José Manuel (Eds.), Trade and employment: From myths to facts (pp. 171–212). International Labour Office.
Bosma, N., Hill, S., Ionescu-Somers, A., Kelley, D., Levie, J., & Tarnawa, A. (2020). GEM Global Report 2019/2020. Global Entrepreneurship Research Association.
Branisa, B., Klasen, S., & Ziegler, M. (2013). Gender Inequality in Social Institutions and Gendered Development Outcomes. World Development, 45, 252–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.12.003.
BRASIL. (2024). Decreto no 11.994, de 10 de abril de 2024. Retrieved on March 17, 2025 from https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2023-2026/2024/Decreto/D11994.htm#art15.
Braunstein, Elissa. (2012). Neoliberal macroeconomics. A consideration of its gendered employment effects.
Bussmann, M. (2009). The effect of trade openness on women’s welfare and work life. World Development, 37(6), 1027–1038.
Bussolo, M., & De Hoyos, R. E. (2009). Gender aspects of the trade and poverty nexus: Introduction and overview. In Gender aspects of the trade and poverty nexus: A macromicro approach (pp. 1–22). Palgrave Macmillan and World Bank.
Çağatay, N., & Ertürk, K. (2004). Gender and globalization: A macroeconomic perspective.
Carneiro, F. G., & Arbache, J. S. (2003). The Impacts of Trade on the Brazilian Labor Market: A CGE Model Approach. World Development, 31(9), 1581–1595. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(03)00106-2.
Chisari, O. O., Maquieyra, J., & Romero, C. A. (2009). Liberalization of trade in services: A CGE analysis for Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. Munich Personal RePEc Archive.
Convergência Digital. (2020). Pequenas empresas lideradas por mulheres têm mais acesso a crédito. Convergência Digital. Retrieved on May 27, 2021, from https://www.convergenciadigital.com.br/cgi/cgilua.exe/sys/start.htmUserActiveTemplate=site%2Cmobile%252Csite&infoid=55513&sid=5.
Cowen, M., & Shenton, R. (1995). The invention of development. In J. S. Crush (Ed.), Power of Development (pp. 25–42). Routledge. Retrieved on April 17, 2021, from https://books.google.de/books?id=oUyTpA33_kQC.
Cury, S., Coelho, A. M., & Corseuil, C. H. (2005). A computable general equilibrium model to analyze distributive aspects in Brazil with a trade policy illustration. Estudos Econômicos (São Paulo), 35(4), 739–765. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-41612005000400006.
Duflo, E. (2012). Women empowerment and economic development. Journal of Economic Literature, 50(4), 1051–1079. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.50.4.1051.
Elson, D., Nilüfer, Ç., & Grown, C. (2007). Mainstream, heterodox, and feminist trade theory. In D. Elson, C. Grown, & Ç. Nilüfer (Eds.), The feminist economics of trade (pp. 47–72). Routledge.
England, P. (2002). The separative self: Androcentric bias in neoclassical assumptions. In N.W. Biggart (Ed.), Readings in Economic Sociology (pp. 112–132). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470755679.ch9.
European Union-Mercosur Association Agreement. (2024). Chapter: Trade and sustainable development. Retrieved on March 17, 2025, from https://www.gov.br/mdic/ptbr/images/REPOSITORIO/secex/deint/cgne/22a_Comrcioa_ea_Desenvolvimentoa_Sustentvel.pdf.
Ferber, M. A., & Nelson, J. A. (Eds.). (1993). Beyond economic man: Feminist theory and economics. The University of Chicago Press.
Fontana, M. (2003). The gender effects of trade liberalisation in developing countries: A review of the literature. Discussion Papers in Economics, 101, 1–29.
Fontana, M. (2007). Modeling the effects of trade on women, at work and at home. In I. van Staveren, D. Elson, C. Grown, & Ç. Nilüfer (Eds.), The feminist economics of trade (pp. 117–140). Routledge.
Fontana, M. (2009). The Gender Effects of Trade Liberalization in Developing Countries: A Review of the Literature. In M. Bussolo & M. Bussolo (Eds.), Gender aspects of the trade and poverty nexus: A macro-micro approach. Palgrave Macmillan and World Bank.
Fontana, M., Joekes, S., & Masika, R. (1998). Global trade expansion and liberalisation: Gender issues and impacts.
Fontana, M., & Wood, A. (2000). Modeling the effects of trade on women, at work and at home. World Development, 28(7), 1173–1190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00033-4.
Frohmann, A. (2017). Gender Equality and Trade Policy. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3113197.
Gaddis, I., & Pieters, J. (2017). The gendered labor market impacts of trade liberalization: evidence from Brazil. Journal of Human Resources, 52(2), 457–490. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.52.2.1014-6690R1.
Hagen, M. von. (2014). Trade and Gender—Exploring a reciprocal relationship. Retrieved on March 17, 2025, from https://www.oecd.org/dac/genderdevelopment/GIZ_Trade%20and%20Gender_Exploring%20a%20reciprocal%20relationship.pdf.
Higgins, K. (2012). Gender dimensions of trade facilitation and logistics: A guidance note. Retrieved on April 21, 2021, from http://hdl.handle.net/10986/16973
IBGE. (2020). PNAD Contínua 2019: Rendimento do 1% que ganha mais equivale a 33,7 vezes o da metade da população que ganha menos. Retrieved on May 6, 2021, from https://agenciadenoticias.ibge.gov.br/agencia-sala-de-imprensa/2013-agencia-denoticias/releases/27594-pnad-continua-2019-rendimento-do-1-que-ganha-maisequivale-a-33-7-vezes-o-da-metade-da-populacao-que-ganha-menos.
Joekes, S. P. (Ed.). (1989). Women in the world economy: An INSTRAW study. Oxford University Press.
Joekes, S. (1995). Trade-related employment for women in industry and services in developing countries. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD).
Kabeer, N., & Natali, L. (2013). Gender equality and economic growth: is there a win-win? IDS Working Papers, 2013(417), 1–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2040-0209.2013.00417.x.
Korinek, J. (2005). Trade and gender: Issues and interactions (OECD Trade Policy Papers no 24). https://doi.org/10.1787/826133710302.
Korinek, J. (2020). Trade and gender: An analytical framework. Retrieved on June 7, 2021, from https://www.cepal.org/sites/default/files/presentations/j._korinek_oecd.pdf.
Korinek, J., Moïsé, E., & Tange, J. (2021). Trade and gender: A framework of analysis. OECD.
Kress, L. (2017). Gender Sensitive Trade? A Feminist Perspective on the EU – Mercosur Free Trade Negotiations. Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung. Retrieved on May 8, 2021 from https://eu.boell.org/en/2017/02/22/gender-sensitive-trade-feminist-perspective-eumercosur-free-trade-negotiations.
Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed). Sage.
Krugman, P. R., & Obstfeld, M. (2003). International economics: Theory and policy (6. ed.). Addison-Wesley.
Lassmann, A. (2020). Services trade and labour market outcomes (OECD Trade Policy Papers no 239). https://doi.org/10.1787/1079852d-en.
LSE Consulting. (2020, February). Sustainability Impact Assessment in Support of the Association Agreement Negotiations between the European Union and Mercosur. Retrieved on May 8, 2021, from https://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2020/february/tradoc_158632.pdf.
Madalozzo, R. (2009). Brazil’s Gender Wage Gap: an empirical analysis. Brazilian Meeting of Econometrics, North America, oct. 2009. Retrieved on June 5, 2021, from <http://bibliotecadigital.fgv.br/ocs/index.php/sbe/EBE09/paper/view/942/341.
MAIA, K. (2001) O impacto do comercio internacional, da mudança tecnológica e da demanda na estrutura de emprego, por nível de qualificação, no Brasil, 1985-1995. In: Encontro da Associação Brasileira de Estudos do Trabalho, 7, 2001, Salvador, BA. Anais... Belo Horizonte: ABET, 2001.
Mann, B. J. (2001). 1999 World Survey on the Role of Women in Development: Globalization, Gender and Work. Journal of Government Information, 28(1), 144–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-0237(01)00273-8.
Menon, N., & Rodgers, Y. van der M. (2021). International trade and women workers in the global south. In G. Berik & E. Kongar (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Feminist Economics (1st ed, pp. 207–215). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429020612-25.
Ministry of Development, Industry, Trade and Services of Brazil. (2023). Women in Foreign Trade An Analysis for Brazil. Retrieved on March 17, 2025, from https://www.gov.br/mdic/pt-br/assuntos/comercio-exterior/estatisticas/outrasestatisticas-de-comercio-exterior-1/women_in_foreign_trade.pdf.
Momsen, J. H. (2004). Gender and development. Routledge. Retrieved on December 2, 2020, from http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=182276
Moreira, S. V., Alves, P. F., & Kubota, L. C. (2006). Firmas de serviços exportadoras: Um estudo sobre setores selecionados. In J. A. De Negri, L. C. Kubota, & Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada (Eds.), Estrutura e dinâmica do setor de serviços no Brasil. IPEA.
Nussbaum, M. C. (2000). Women and human development: The capabilities approach. Cambridge University Press.
OECD. (2020). SME and Entrepreneurship Policy in Brazil 2020. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. https://doi.org/10.1787/cc5feb81-en.
OECD. (2021). International trade—Trade in services—OECD Data. Retrieved on May 12, 2021, from http://data.oecd.org/trade/trade-in-services.htm.
Onozato, E., Bastos Junior, P. A., Greco, S. M. de S. S., & Souza, V. L. de. (2020). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: Empreendedorismo no Brasil 2019. IBPQ.
Pavcnik, N., Blom, A., Goldberg, P., & Schady, N. (2003). Trade liberalization and labor market adjustment in Brazil. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-2982.
SEBRAE. (2019a). Mais de 45% das donas de negócios no Brasil se tornaram “chefes de domicílio.” ASN - Agência Sebrae de Notícias. Retrieved on May 8, 2021, from http://www.agenciasebrae.com.br/sites/asn/uf/NA/mais-de-45-das-donas-de-negociosno-brasil-se-tornaram-chefes-dedomicilio,07ce935194b39610VgnVCM1000004c00210aRCRD.
SEBRAE. (2019b). Relatório especial: Empreendedorismo Feminino no Brasil. Retrieved on May 8, 2021, from
SEBRAE. (2022). Empreendedorismo Feminino no Brasil em 2021. Retrieved on May 8, 2021, from https://datasebrae.com.br/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/GEM2021_5050_UGE_OFICIAL_Leve.pdf.
SEBRAE, & DIEESE. (2016). Anuário das mulheres empreendedoras e trabalhadoras em micro e pequenas Empresas (2014 -2015) (3rd ed.). SEBRAE. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781783472338.00020.
Seguino, S. (2007). PlusÇa Change? Evidence on global trends in gender norms and stereotypes. Feminist Economics, 13(2), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700601184880.
Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom (1st. ed). Knopf.
Shaikh, A. (2007). Globalization and the myths of free trade: History, theory, and empirical evidence. (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203966389
Silva, A. M., Kubota, L. C., & De Negri, J. A. (2006). Estrutura e dinâmica do setor de serviços no brasil. IPEA.
Standing, G. (1989). Global feminization through flexible labor. World Development, 17(7), 1077–1095. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(89)90170-8
Standing, G. (1999). Global feminization through flexible labor: A theme revisited. World Development, 27(3), 583–602. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(98)00151-X
Staveren, I. van, Elson, D., Grown, C., & Nilüfer, Ç. (Eds.). (2007). The feminist economics of trade. Routledge.
Tejani, S., & Milberg, W. (2010). Global defeminization? Industrial upgrading, occupational segmentation and manufacturing employment in middle-income countries. Schwartz Center for Economic Policy Analysis and Department of Economics.
Tejani, S., & Milberg, W. (2016). Global defeminization? Industrial upgrading and manufacturing employment in developing countries. Feminist Economics, 22(2), 24–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1120880.
Thorin, M. (2001). The gender dimension of globalization: A survey of the literature with a focus on Latin America and the Caribbean, Comercio Internacional 4361, Naciones Unidas, Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL).
Todaro, M. P., & Smith, S. C. (2015). Economic development (12th edition). Pearson.
UNCTAD. (2014). Virtual institute teaching material on Trade and Gender(Vol. 1): Unfolding the links. United Nations.
UNCTAD. (2017). The gender dynamics of inclusion and exclusion: A macro perspective on employment. In United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Trade and Development Report 2017 (pp. 67–92). United Nations. https://doi.org/10.18356/1cef4f1d-en.
UNCTAD. (2018). Unfolding the links (Module 4c) Trade and Gender Linkages: An analysis of MERCOSUR. In: Teaching material on trade and gender (Volume 1). United Nations.
UNCTAD. (2022). Looking at the trade and gender nexus from a development perspective: A brief overview: concepts, definitions and analytical frameworks. United Nations. https://doi.org/10.18356/9789210012201.
Vieira, A. (2007). A expansão do trabalho feminino no setor de serviços: Uma análise nas cinco regiões do Brasil (Thesis degree course in economic sciences). Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina.
Walby, S. (2020). Varieties of Gender Regimes. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 27(3), 414–431. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxaa018.
World Bank. (2021). Gini index (World Bank estimate)—Brazil | Data. Retrieved on May 6, 2021, from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=BR.
World Bank & World Trade Organization. (2020). Women and Trade: The Role of Trade in Promoting Gender Equality. World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1541-6.
